Welcome to the MSU History Exhibit on art and propaganda in Nazi Germany. This exhibit marks the culmination of our collective engagement with formative events, individuals, and art discourses that have shaped the history of Nazi propaganda. We welcome your questions and feedback. On behalf of the summer 2020 History 491 research team, thank you for taking the time to explore this historical chapter and our contemporary reflections on it!
Prelude:
Timeline of Events Leading up to World War II
Following Germany's crushing defeat in WWI, the nation not only faced harsh reparations from global neighbors, but also challenges that came with the birth of a new democracy, commonly referred to as the Weimar Republic. From the outset, the Weimar Republic navigated its way through unrest that included coups (Kapp Putsch of 1920 + Beer Hall Putsch of 1923), historic inflation (1921-1923), political assassinations (Rosa Luxemburg, Matthias Erzberger, Walther Rathenau), and more. At the same time, it ushered in women's suffrage (1919) and a vast expansion of democratic policies that bolstered the legal frameworks and rights of LGBT community, families, education, and Jewish citizens. Despite such gains, tough times were never far from the Weimar Republic. The following timeline sets the tone for our exhibit by tracing the shift from democracy to totalitarianism through key events.
Part I: Art + Design and/in the Nazi Imaginary
Questions of art and design revealed deep cultural and political tensions in the Third Reich. There remains a certain prejudice against artists who were approved by the Nazis. Those who complied with the regime's demands and remained in Germany have often been regarded as bad artists. Yet, this does not capture the full story. As Art Historian Peter Adam has written, history tends to "oversimplify." By the same token, art and artists that were deemed "degenerate" or "bad" by the Nazis have tended to be regarded as good by art historians ever since. This idea, too, has nuances that require a critical glance today. Those who remained in Germany often did compromise a degree of integrity by adhering to certain set of political standards that sought to define art via propaganda. But some toed the line or, in some cases, moved the line of what was deemed acceptable. Meanwhile, much of the banned art such as Expressionism or Dadaism has gone on to assume a place in the history of art as being pivotal and transformative. Part I of our exhibit examines how the worlds of art and design intertwined and engaged with Nazi policies in order to cast a renewed glance on the roles and actors in this history.
"Coming Home from Eastern Front"Titled “Coming Home from the Eastern Front,” this image from Austrian artist Rudolf Hermann Eisenmenger is indicative of Nazi ideals surrounding art. Taken from a broader mural around the 1930s, the close-up shot depicts both figures as large, strong supporters of the Third Reich. They are what the ideal Aryan man was supposed to look like in Hitler’s eyes: blonde hair, handsome, and visible determination to fight and work for their country. The man on the right side of the mural is looking off into the distance, while unshackling himself. The man on the left is hard to discern from the man on the right, perhaps signaling a transformation from shackled servant to free soldier, or also a unity between work and military service. Both men project forward. This infers a new unified world between farmers and fighters alike, if not also Eisenmenger's + Hitler's home of Austria and Germany.
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Acts of Resistance in Art
Following the Nazi closure of the Bauhaus in 1933, students, supporters, and teachers of the famous school of praxis engaged in various acts of resistance, mostly from exile in places like the United States, Israel, England, France, and Japan. Politically subversive expressions of this resistance took various forms, thus highlighting the multi-faceted influence of Bauhaus. To name several examples, photographer Irena Blühova published underground journals in Czechoslovakia; graphic designer Moses Bahelfer forged counterfeit papers in the French Resistance; Bruno Adler broadcast anti-Nazi propaganda into the Third Reich via BBC World Service. Meanwhile, famous Bauhaus practitioners including founder Walter Gropius, Josef + Anni Albers, László Moholy-Nagy, and Mies van der Rohe are a few of the professors who fled to the U.S. where they continued to spread the ideas of the Bauhaus. Despite the obstacles the Nazi party used in attempt to exterminate the Modern Movement in architecture and design, the ideas from the Bauhaus ironically flourished worldwide due to the exodus.
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Załuski Library: Architecture Destroyed by the Third ReichIn Hitler’s domination he destroyed the city of Warsaw, Poland’s capital. Churches, homes, museums, and libraries, like the Załuski Library were turned to rubble. Established in 1747, as seen in the image above, the Załuski Library was the first public library in Poland, containing an impressive collection with over 400,000 print items. The structure itself was built in the Rococo style which celebrates asymmetry and elaborate decoration with a light and airy feel, different from the style of many buildings built by the Third Reich. The Nazi destruction of the Załuski Library reminds us of the significance of institutions such as libraries and the cultural histories they safeguard. The Nazi politics of erasure sought to destroy Polish identity by attacking this cultural history and tradition in order to rid potential new followers of any home to which they could return and future historians of any contents that might present a counter history to Nazi mythology.
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Führerbau:
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The Nazi Font?
How does a seemingly simple and innocent font come to represent the dark history of Germany? A typeface from a family of German typefaces once used throughout Germany which are known collectively as Fraktur which in English goes by a different name: blackletter. Used by a bus driver in Berlin to write the words "This bus is driven by a German driver," the font helped to convey a different message: I am not an immigrant, which engages in a political historiography of (false!) reclamation of "Fraktur" for Hitler's cause. (He didn't even like this font!) For more information, tune in to this episode of 99% Invisible, which explores what it means to convey loyalty with a simple font.
https://99percentinvisible.org/episode/fraktur/ |
Art, Architecture, Adversity in the Third Reich
The Bauhaus was a school of art + architecture that opened in the Weimar Republic in 1919. Walter Gropius, the founder, aimed to design (and build! Bau-haus = building/creating + house) a movement that combined the ideas of aesthetics and physical mechanics that rejected the traditional designs of classical art. Its core objective was a radical concept: to reimagine the material world to reflect the unity of all the arts. Along with other artistic movements such as "Die Brücke" or "Der blaue Reiter," art that emerged from the Bauhaus was deemed as "degenerate" in the Third Reich. This was due to its abstract, experimental, and modern qualities.
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Part II: Exhibiting Art in the Third Reich
By the late 1930s, the politics of art were put on display for the masses through a series of traveling art exhibitions, which introduced and ideologically educated or in some cases persuaded the public on the new wave of true German art versus the false traditions of bad art.
"Degenerate Art Exhibit"
The political affiliation of individual artists in Nazi Germany were an important piece of society and where everyone fit into the puzzle. Looking at the "Degenerate Art Exhibit" of 1937 in particular, a dividing line between those who supported the Nazi party, and used their art to express that, and those who did not support the regime came to light. While modern artists were originally celebrated by high ranking officials in the Nazi party, that quickly changed because modern artists did not reflect “traditional” Nazi values. Modern artists were considered equal to Jews. In a video interview, Historian Jonathan Petropoulos states that “in Hitler’s mind, if you made modern art you didn’t see shapes and colors as they truly were, and modern artists were often linked to being Jewish and/or racially inferior.” (00:3:37-00:3:34) Even if the artist was not Jewish, they were lumped into the same category. Hitler also made politically charged decisions when supporting artists, and he had a 36-page list of artists he considered crucial to the Nazi regime. Artists such as Johannes Heesters made the list, but did not make their political stance known for fear of losing their job if they were to speak out against the regime.
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"Great German Art"
With war declared on modern art, Nazi officials wanted to celebrate art that represented “traditional” Nazi values. Nazi art had three key identifiable elements.
One, Nazi art was huge, whether it was a sculpture or a painting, the subject in the painting, especially males, were shown as larger than life. Jonathan Petropoulos describes Nazi art as, “gargantuan, it’s gigantic, it dominates the viewer, it’s not human.” (00:4:38-00:4:44) The giant stature was a reflection of the regime at the time which dominated its people. A second element of Nazi art was race and discrimination particularly against Jewish citizens. Jews were the target for racial discrimination, and a large amount of propaganda centered around the DNA of Jewish people stereotyping their looks and mannerisms, even though Judaism is not a race. A third main element of Nazi art is gender, and this is one element in which the art did not represent Nazi society. Women were shown in a peaceful and domestic state, and often shown reading scriptures or taking care of the home. (see above) German men usually opposed German women as they were shown in an act of heroism showing off their strength. |
Joseph Goebbels
Joseph Goebbels was the Minister of Propaganda for Nazi Germany. In his early life, he studied history and developed a deep hatred of Jews. His vitriolic antisemitism contributed to him joining the Nazi party in 1924, and eventually, Hitler’s charisma enamored him so much he pledged his loyalty to him. Goebbels' friendship with Hitler and natural talent allowed him to quickly rise in prominence within the party. After the Nazis gained power, he began a war against modern art in Germany, confiscating paintings deemed ‘degenerate’ and censoring artists and critics. Goebbels was a huge proponent as film as propaganda, due to its abilities to easily reach the masses. He had a direct hand in creating and distributing thousands of hours of film; with topics ranging from the war to the Jewish menace. He was also a vocal proponent of the "Final Solution," again due to his deep antisemitism. As the war progressed and the Axis began to suffer major defeats, he used his propaganda machine to try and maintain morale. In his most notable speech, known as the Sportpalast speech, he called for total war and tried to mobilize the German people. Ultimately Goebbels became the German Chancellor after Hitler killed himself, but he committed suicide along with his wife and children the next day.
Part III: Nazi Screen Cultures, Then and Now
Feature films and documentaries played a major role in the spread of propaganda for the Nazi Party. These films had the power to show the great strength of the German military and the terrible Nazi ideologies they believed in. Films aimed to make Jewish citizens appear to be the problem and as roadblocks in the progress of the nation.
Triumph of the Will (1935)
Already in the opening credits of Triumph of the Will by Leni Riefenstahl (1935), the words “Produced by Order of the Führer” leave little doubt about the film's intentions. This film was never about making a profit or winning an Oscar; rather, it influenced and persuaded viewers why the Nazi party was a good thing for Germany through Riefenstahl's portrayal of the masses. In one scene, Adolf Hitler was depicted riding in the car riding through large crowds of jubilant people. This alluded to how someone might imagine Napoleon or Julius Caesar riding through their respective cities. The film demonstrated how Hitler was considered the savior of Germany by the masses.
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The Eternal Jew (1940)
The Eternal Jew by Fritz Hippler was considered one of the most notorious films of Nazi cinema due to its blatant racial antisemitism. As seen in the film poster above, Hippler tried to create a negative image of Jews, portraying them as inferior and even non-human. The lessons of such attempts show how vital it is to not single out a group of people like the way the Jews were.
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Jojo Rabbit (2019)
Jojo Rabbit is a very silly film—until it isn't. In Director Taika Waititi's interesting take on Nazi Germany, Waititi attempts to deconstruct fascism through the mind of the young protagonist, Jojo Rabbit, whose imaginary friend is Adolf Hitler. In the opening scene of the film (pictured above), Jojo and Hitler's conversation playfully embodies the type of brainwashing that permeated the Nazi youth program. Indeed, the film was criticized by media outlets such as The Guardian for its comedic, disarming portrayal of Nazi Germany. From first glance on, the plot seems to in fact idolize the Nazi agenda with overly exuberant dramatization of a typical Hitler Youth camp. However, when the audience examines such scenes more closely, a satire and critique of Nazi ideology emerges where injuries, mishaps, and mismanagement offset the goal of creating an ideological fighting force. By manipulating young, malleable minds to build a future fascist society, the Hitler Youth came to represent what propaganda sought to do for a whole nation. Revisiting this subject matter through feature films like Jojo Rabbit highlights how propaganda became instilled in people’s minds and the various forms of resistance that stood in the way.
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Hitler's Hollywood
In the documentary Hitler’s Hollywood, editing strategies show how camera angles and scenes tended to connect the audience with Hitler’s point of view. Looking at this today, the observer can feel an eerie chill of how effective the Nazi propaganda worked in their agenda of causing this hysteria of hate.
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Part IV: Schools and Youth
After 1933, when Hitler assumed power, schools in Germany changed dramatically. The material being taught was altered to fit with the Nazi party's antisemitic agenda. Racial science and history became the most important subjects. New textbooks sporting these ideas were introduced by the party. Teachers were required to comply with the new requirements and for those who didn't "retired" early. Teachers who were Jewish also fell to early retirement. Eventually the amount of Jewish children allowed to attend public schools decreased to none. By forcefully teaching antisemitism to children, the Nazi party was able to teach the children obedience and belief of the Nazi's actions and ideals.
Board Games:
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Stories:
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Education
At higher levels of education, too, classrooms curricula were based largely on Nazi beliefs. Students were indoctrinated with anti-Semitic pseudo-science, and textbooks were replaced by those that suited the Nazi belief system. Many young students were enrolled in Nazi programs such as Hitler Youth, and teachers largely belonged to the Nazi party. All of this encouraged the building of a new generation of pro-Nazi beliefs. Students were strongly encouraged to join the military after graduation.
https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/indoctrinating-youth |
Part V: Society and its Discontents
On a whole, Nazi art and propaganda worked together to create the most positive image possible for Nazi ideology, regardless of reality. One key aspect of this approach lay in the necessity of the scapegoat, which was usually the Jews, but also other marginal groups such as Cultural Bolshevists, LGBT community, Roma community, or, German traitors: those who dared to defy the Führer and help any of the political or cultural enemies of the state. The German people were reminded often of the struggles the country had gone through. Such struggles were caused directly due to the Jewish people in Hitler's mind or other scapegoats. The scapegoat narrative took hold across the country and the violence against Jews became acceptable. With the help of propaganda the German people were becoming more and more positive that the Jews were to be blamed for nation's past struggles. In the image seen below, the nation was made aware of the perceived evils that the Jews' presence brought and their capability to provoke war. Other forms of propaganda like art, music, theater, films, books, radio, and the press were used to keep the scapegoat fresh in people's minds.
The Church
Anti-Semitism and the Christian church were historically linked. The majority of Germans at the time belonged to Christian churches. Many Christians supported the Nazi Party. Christian churches were divided into several categories and movements: Landeskirchen (Protestant churches), Deutsche Christians (German Christians), Bekennende Kirche (Confessing Church). These churches argued over the merit of Nazism and where it belonged in Christianity.
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Nazis in the USA
The US Reception: On February 20, 1939 some 20,000 Pro Nazi Americans gathered at Madison Square Garden for an event called "Pro American Rally". This event occurred six months before the invasion of Poland and war began with Germany. The event was put on by the group of pro Nazi here in America called the German American Bund. During, that time here in America antisemitism and discrimination of minorities wasn't looked up to, but nor was it frown upon either. This Pro Nazi event played off of American Patriotism and Nationalism cloaking its hidden agenda that being the spread antisemitism thought. As they hide it behind large displays of America flags and a gigantic portrait of George Washington in the back drop of the stage, with Nazi symbols integrated into the setting. Showing us Americans that we are susceptible to leaders that will put us against each other. Symbolism has been used to divide us in the past and present by it promoting political bias agendas hidden behind Nationalism. https://anightatthegarden.com/ |
Family:
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Justice:
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